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The Indus Valley Civilization: Flourishing around 2600 to 1900 BCE, the Indus Valley Civilization developed in what is now Pakistan and northwestern India. Despite its impressive urban planning, extensive trade networks, and sophisticated drainage systems, much about its writing system and language remains undeciphered.
The Minoans: The Minoan civilization thrived on the island of Crete from approximately 2700 to 1450 BCE. Known for its advanced art, architecture, and seafaring prowess, the Minoans had a complex society that mysteriously declined, possibly due to natural disasters or invasions.
The Carthaginians: Founded by Phoenician settlers in present-day Tunisia around the 9th century BCE, Carthage grew into a powerful maritime empire. They competed with the Roman Republic and were eventually defeated in the Punic Wars, leading to the destruction of their city in 146 BCE.
The Nabateans: The Nabateans were an ancient Arab civilization that thrived from the 4th century BCE to the 1st century CE. They built the famous rock city of Petra in present-day Jordan and controlled vital trade routes in the region.
The Kingdom of Aksum: Located in present-day Ethiopia and Eritrea, the Kingdom of Aksum emerged around the 1st century CE and reached its height during the 4th to 6th centuries CE. It was a major trading power, known for its distinctive architecture and the conversion to Christianity of its ruler, Ezana.
The Chachapoya: The Chachapoya civilization inhabited the cloud forests of northern Peru from the 9th to the 15th century CE. They built intricate stone structures and had advanced knowledge of agriculture, but their society eventually succumbed to the Inca conquest.
The Khmer Empire: From the 9th to the 15th centuries CE, the Khmer Empire flourished in Southeast Asia, with its capital in Angkor. Known for the magnificent temple complex of Angkor Wat, the Khmer Empire was a center of art, religion, and irrigation systems.
The Olmec Civilization: Considered the “mother culture” of Mesoamerica, the Olmec Civilization emerged in what is now Mexico around 1500 BCE and lasted until about 400 BCE. They developed large ceremonial centers, colossal stone heads, and a system of hieroglyphic writing.
The Hittites: The Hittites were an ancient Anatolian civilization that existed from the 17th to the 12th centuries BCE. They created a formidable empire, known for their military prowess and advancements in chariot warfare, and their empire collapsed due to invasions and internal unrest.
The Nok Culture: The Nok Culture flourished in what is now Nigeria from approximately 1000 BCE to 300 CE. They were skilled in terracotta sculpture and ironworking, leaving behind impressive artifacts, but little is known about their society and eventual decline
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